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Fresh dialysate solution Peritoneal cavity Used dialysate solution A B Peritoneal Dialysis Medical Vocabulary 207 Medical Vocabulary Recall Match the medical terms below with the definitions in the numbered list prehypertension youtube order adalat on line. Competency Verification: Check your answers in Appendix B blood pressure response to exercise buy adalat 20mg online, Answer Key heart attack 6 minutes order adalat discount, on page 379. Studying and completing the terminology and chart note analysis sections below will help you learn and understand terms associated with the medical specialty of urology. Terminology the following terms are linked to chart notes in the medical specialty of urology and nephrology. If needed, refer to the Terminology section on page 209 for correct pronunciations and meanings of terms. Chart Notes 211 this 50-year-old white woman has been complaining of diffuse pelvic pain with urinary bladder spasm since cystoscopy 10 days ago, at which time marked cystitis was noted. She reports nocturia three to four, urinary frequency, urgency, and epigastric discomfort. In 19xx, she was admitted to the hospital with cholecystitis, chronic and acute; cholelithiasis; and choledocholithiasis. Subsequently, cholecystectomy, choledocholithotomy, and incidental appendectomy were performed. A person with nephrosis exhibits swelling, or, around the ankles, feet, and eyes. Medication administered into a vein is said to be given by an method. When a person has the ability to control his or her bladder, it is known as urinary 11. A diseased kidney can lead to, also called enlarged kidney. The rupture or protrusion of an organ through a wall of a body cavity is called a 13. In pyonephrosis, there is an accumulation of in the kidneys. A physician who manages kidney transplants and dialysis therapies is a Competency Verification: Check your answers in Appendix B, Answer Key, on page 379. A diagnosis of hydronephrosis would indicate an obstruction in the tract. Unlike most medical specialties, gynecology includes both the surgical and the nonsurgical expertise of the physician. The obstetrician and gynecologist possess knowledge of endocrinology because hormones play an important role in the functions of the female reproductive system, especially the process of secondary sex characteristics, menstruation, pregnancy, and menopause. Obstetrics is the branch of medicine concerned with pregnancy and childbirth, including the study of the physiological and pathological functions of the female reproductive tract. It also involves the care of the mother and fetus throughout pregnancy, childbirth, and the immediate postpartum period. The branch of medicine that concentrates on the care of the neonate and in the diagnosis and treatment of disorders of neonates is known as neonatology. When an infant is born, physicians called neonatologists specialize in providing medical care to the infant. Reproductive Systems Quick Study 215 Urology Urology is the branch of medicine specializing in treating disorders of the male reproductive system. The urologist is a specialist who diagnoses and manages male reproductive dysfunctions. The urologist uses diagnostic tests, medical and surgical procedures, and drugs to treat diseases, sexual dysfunctions, and infertility in male patients. The urologist also diagnoses and treats diseases that affect the urinary system of men and women. They are specialized to produce and unite gametes and transport them to sites of fertilization. Reproductive systems of both sexes are designed specifically to perpetuate the species and pass genetic material from generation to generation. In addition, both sexes produce hormones, which are vital in development and maintenance of sexual characteristics and regulation of reproductive physiology. In women, the reproductive system includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, and vulva. In men, the reproductive system includes the testes, epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicles, ejaculatory duct, prostate, and penis.
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Moreover arrhythmia detection buy cheap adalat 20mg on-line, flow in the venules may be stratified as the result of converging blood streams that do not mix rapidly blood pressure medication liver disease order adalat 30mg on-line. The key to blood pressure ranges child buy adalat 30 mg without a prescription understanding the pattern of arteriolar and venular blood flow is the mechanics of flow at vascular bifurcations, diverging for arteriolar flow and converging for venular flow [21]. Much is known about aggregation in vitro, but in vivo knowledge is incomplete [2,18,22,23]. Problems of leukocyte distribution in the microcirculation and their interaction with the microvascular endothelium have attracted considerable attention in recent years [17]. Leukocyte rolling along the walls of venules, but not arterioles, has been demonstrated. This effect results from differences in the microvascular endothelium, mainly attributed to the differential expression of adhesion molecules on the endothelial surface [24]. To conclude, many important features of blood flow through arterioles and venules are qualitatively known and understood; however, a rigorous theoretical description of flow as a suspension of discrete particles is not yet available. Such description is necessary for a quantitative understanding of the mechanisms of the nonuniform distribution of blood cells in microvessels. Methods have been developed to quantitatively describe network architectonics and hemodynamics [30]. The microvasculature is an adaptable structure capable of changing its structural and functional characteristics in response to various stimuli [31]. Angiogenesis, rarefaction, and microvascular remodeling are important examples of this adaptive behavior that play important physiological and pathophysiological roles. Methods of fractal analysis have been applied to interpret experimental data on angioarchitecture and blood flow distribution in the microcirculation; these methods explore the property of geometrical and flow similarity that exist at different scales in the network [32]. Mean microvascular blood flow rate in arterioles decreases toward the capillaries, in inverse proportion to the number of "parallel" vessels, and increases from capillaries through the venules. In addition to this longitudinal variation of blood flow and pressure among different branching orders, there are significant variations among vessels of the same branching order, referred to as flow heterogeneity. This phenomenon may have important implications for tissue exchange processes, so significant efforts have been devoted to the quantitative analysis of blood flow in microvascular networks. A mathematical model of blood flow in a network can be formulated as follows: First, network topology or vessel interconnections have to be specified. Alternatively, vessel diameter can be specified as a function of transmural pressure and perhaps some other parameters; these relationships are discussed in the preceding section on wall mechanics. Third, the apparent viscosity of blood has to be specified as a function of vessel diameter, local hematocrit, and shear rate. This set of generally nonlinear equations can be solved to yield pressure at each bifurcation, blood flow rate through each segment, and discharge or microvessel hematocrit in each segment. These equations also predict vessel diameters if vessel compliance is taken into account. The authors found a good agreement between theoretical and experimental data when histograms of parameter distributions were compared, but poor agreement, particularly for vessel hematocrit, when comparison was done on a vessel-by-vessel basis. In these calculations, the expression for apparent viscosity was taken from in vitro experiments. The agreement was improved when the apparent viscosity was increased substantially from its in vitro values, particularly in the smallest vessels. Thus, a working hypothesis was put forward that in vivo apparent viscosity in small vessels is higher than the corresponding in vitro viscosity in glass tubes.
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The calculation of the current density and electric fields can be easily done in simple cases such as a homogenous conductivity (the same everywhere) and isotropic conductivity (the same in all directions) hypertension symptoms high blood pressure cheap 20 mg adalat amex. Quasi-static formulation: the calculation of the electric fields generated by an electrode located in a conducting volume conductor can be done by solving Maxwell equations arrhythmia of the heart generic 20mg adalat otc. Equivalence between dielectric and conductive media: Assuming an infinite homogeneous conducting medium with conductivity with a single point source as shown in Figure 28 blood pressure medication excessive sweating discount adalat 30mg fast delivery. This equation is nearly identical to the Poisson equation derived from Equation 28. Using the following equivalence: Iv the solution of the Poisson equation for dielectric problems can then be used for the solution of the current in volume conductors. Potential from a monopole source: Given a point source (monopolar) in an infinite homogeneous and isotropic volume conductor connected to a current source I, the potential and currents anywhere can be easily derived. Using spherical symmetry, the current density J at a point P located at a distance r from the source is equal to the total current crossing a spherical surface with radius r (see Figure 28. For a monopolar electrode, the current distribution is radial and is inversely proportional to the conductance of the medium and the distance to the source. The potential decays to zero far away from the electrode and goes to infinity on the electrode. The singularity at r = 0 can be eliminated by assuming that the electrode is spherical with finite radius a. Assuming n electrodes with a current Ii located at a distance ri from the recording point, the voltage is then given by: = 1 4 Ii ri (28. Potential from bipolar electrodes and dipoles: In the derivation of the potential generated by a monopolar electrode, the current enters the volume conductor at the tip of the electrode and exits at infinity. However, in the following example (salt water tank), a current is applied through two monopolar electrodes separated by a distance d as shown in Figure 28. The potential generated by this bipolar configuration can be calculated at point P (assuming that the voltage reference is at infinity) as follows: = I 4 1 1 - r1 r2 (28. The current distribution for a current dipole is no longer radial and is shown in Figure 28. The voltage along the line perpendicular to the axis of the dipole and passing through a point equidistant from the electrodes is zero. Therefore an axon located in that region would not be excited regardless of the current amplitude. The potential generated by a dipole is inversely proportional to the square of the distance and therefore decays faster than the monopole. The voltage generated by the bipolar arrangement can be measured as shown provided that the reference electrode is located far away from the stimulation electrode. The effect of the stimulation electrode on the reference potential can also be taken into account. The distance r between the observation P and the electrodes is much greater than the distance d between the electrodes. The method of images can be used to calculate the voltage generated by an electrode in a homogenous volume conductor. The two semi-infinite volume conductors with conductivities 1 and 2 (a) are replaced by a single infinite volume conductor with conductivity 1 and an additional image electrode (b). However, the excitation thresholds are higher since most of the current flows around the electrode. For an observation point located at a distance r from a dipole or monopole with the same current, the ratio of the monopole voltage to that of the dipole voltage is proportional to r/d. Since r is assumed to be much larger than d, then the monopole voltage is much larger than the voltage generated by the dipole. Inhomogenous volume conductors: For practical applications of electrical stimulation, electrodes are placed in various parts of the body. The volume conductors are clearly not homogenous since we must consider the presence of bone with a conductivity significantly higher than that of extracellular space or even air above the skin with a conductivity of zero. This question can usually only be answered numerically by computer models, which take into account these various compartments such as finite differences, finite elements, or boundary elements methods.
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